Leadership and Management

Leadership and Management

Figure 1-Leadership and Management (Ward, 2017)

According to Rost (1991), evaluation of the leadership has been started from 1900 to the preset by stp by step. Many people has defined what the leadership is. According to Ward (2017) stating Leadership is “ the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal”. Yukl (2006) stated that leadership is “the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives”. 

By concidering all the references mentioned above, leadership can be defined as, a process of an individual that influences a group of people to achieve a one common goal. Leadership mainly depended on the effectiveness of communicating ideas, which will able the team to act as the leader wants them to act.

As today world is more move in to the digital world, knowledge on digital world is a factor which influences the leadership in today world. Most of the top class leaders such as Stev Jobs are superior in the technology world. Moral is another factor which influences the leadership in today.

According to Zaleznik (2004), management comprises directing and controlling a group of one or more people or entities for the purpose of coordinating and harmonizing that group towards accomplishing a goal. According to the authors perspective, management is basically getting the work done by others via controlling them. 

According to Yukl (2006), leadership and management both involve and work with the people and achieving a common goal. But they are two different perspectives which must be go hand in hand. A comparison in between leadership and management is follows as bellow.

Table 1-Differences between management and the leadership

	Leadership	Management
Personality Styles	Leaders Are often called brilliant and mercurial, with great charisma. Yet, they are also often seen as loners and private people. They are comfortable taking risks, sometimes seemingly wild and crazy risks. Almost all leaders have high levels of imagination	Managers tend to be rational, under control problem solvers. They often focus on goals, structures, personnel, and availability of resources. Managers’ personalities lean toward persistence, strong will, analysis, and intelligence.
Orientation	People-oriented	Task-oriented
Focus	Leading people Leadership refers to an individual’s ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward organizational success.	Managing work Management consists of controlling a group or a set of entities to accomplish a goal.
Approach to tasks	Leadership simply looks at problems and devises new, creative solutions. Using their charisma and commitment, they excite, motivate, and focus others to solve problems and excel.	Management used to create strategies, policies, and methods to create teams and ideas that combine to operate smoothly. They empower people by soliciting their views, values, and principles. They believe that this combination reduces inherent risk and generates success
Approach to risk	Risk-taking	Risk-averse
Organization	Leaders have followers	Manager have subordinates
Skills needed	1.      Creating values  Leaders focus on creating value for their business and employees. 2.      Managing people  Leaders refer employees’ ability to impact, encourage and enable them to contribute for company.	1.      Counting values  Manager should focus on counting value instead of adding it to manage employees. 2.      Managing work  Manager must have ability to control followers or groups of entities.
Mindsets	1.      Inspiring and motivating Leaders must be a person that inspire and motivate their subordinates by attitudes, speeches and incentives. This will create motivation for employees to follow and work. 2.      Circles of influence Instead of creating circles of power, leaders need to enhance their influence over employees.	1.      Controlling and Problem Solving  It requires managers to have thought of controlling and problem solving so that they can manage and eliminate arising problems. 2.      Circles of power  It also requires manager to create circle of power in order to manage business well.
Activities involved	1.      Creating a sense of direction Leaders must be able to guide business into specific direction so that subordinate can follow to achieve goal. 2.      Communicating the vision The vision of leaders is shared to spread out the opportunities and changes that organization will acquire. Thus employees will know what they need to do and follow.	1.      Planning and budgeting A manager is responsible for creating plan for implement project or employees task. They also manage the budget for the project. 2.      Organizing and staffing Manager account for organizing work which enable different department work together. They also need to manage their followers to that they can understand and arrange suitable position based on employees capacities.
Emotional involvement	Used to have empathy with other people and give attention to what events and actions mean.	Used to maintain a low level of emotional involvement in business practices.
Organization structure	Does not necessarily take place within the hierarchical structure of the organization.	Take place within the hierarchical structure of the organization.

(Author developed based on Zaleznik, 2004)

It can be argued that as the leaders are more in to people oriented and Managers in to task oriented, for an example, If a team is willing to climb Everest, leaders do not specifically assigned the tasks for each and every person, they try to get the help of people with unity, but managers assign tasks for the team members with a budget. Leaders are definitely managers, who entitles and work with people to achieve a one common goal with more people orienting. But managers are not every time leaders as they are more in to task oriented with budgeting. 

Trait Approach

According to Rost (1991), Trait  approach was the first initiative system which research about leadership. Basically by comparing to the other leadership approaches, trait approach focuses exclusively on the leader, not on the followers or the situation which makes the approach theoretically more straightforward than other approaches.

·         Great man theory

In 20^th centaury trait approach theory named as “Great man theory” was used to identify qualities and characteristics of a great social, political, and military leader. According to this theory it believe that people are born with leadership traits and people who used to posed them are called as great people.

·         Stogdill Theory (1974)

After that in the mid of 20^th centaury, Stogdill argued that there are no any set of traits which differentiate leaders from non-leaders across a variety of situations. Person who was a leader in one situation might not be a leader in another situation. According to this theory, leadership is a relationship in-between people in a social situation. And also Stogdill has stated that traits and situational factors both are determinants of leadership. Stogdill listed 10 traits that were associated with leadership as below. 

1.      Drive for responsibility and task completion

2.      Vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals

3.      Risk taking and originality in problem solving

4.      Drive to exercise initiative in social situations

5.      Self-confidence and sense of personal identity

6.      Willingness to accept consequences of decision and action

7.      Readiness to absorb interpersonal stress

8.      Willingness to tolerate frustration and delay

9.      Ability to influence other people’s behavior

10.  Capacity to structure social interaction systems to the purpose at hand

·         Mann Theory (1959)

According to Rost (1991), in Mann’s Theory there are certain traits used to distinguish leaders from nonleaders. Such as, intelligence, masculinity, adjustment, dominance, extraversion, and conservatism. This theory has less emphasis on how situational factors influence leadership.

·         Meta-analysis

This analysis was done by Lord, DeVader, and Alliger in 1986. According to this theory, intelligence, masculinity, and dominance are three main traits of leadership.

·         Kirkpatrick and Locke Theory (1991)

Basically here it has been identified the importance of leadership traits. They have stated that, “it is unequivocally clear that leaders are not like other people.” And also according to Rost (1991), Kirkpatrick and Locke has identified six main traits which defferentiate leaders from nonleaders which leaders can be born with them, learn them or the both. Thoes factors are called as the “right stuff ” for leaders. Such as,  drive, motivation, integrity, confidence, cognitive ability, and task knowledge.

Likewise by time to time the trait approach has been discussed amongg many people in different perspectives. Many people have defined trais and characteristics of leadership as shown in the below figure.

Figure 3-Trais and characteristics of leadership (French, 2004)

Five-Factor Personality Model and Leadership

Figure 4- Big Five Personality Factors (Goldberg, 1990)

According to Goldberg (1990), McCrae & Costa has defined the big five personal factors and the relationship of them with the concept of leadership in 1987 via handling a meta-analysis. According to their study, extraversion was the factor most strongly associated with leadership and the agreeableness, was the weakly associated factor with leadership.

Strengths of Trait Approach 

1.      It fits clearly with our notion that leaders are the individuals who are out front and leading the way in our society.

2.      People have a need to see their leaders as gifted people, and the trait approach fulfills this need.  

3.      It has a century of research to back it up.

4.      More conceptual in nature, results from the way the trait approach highlights the leader component in the leadership process. 

5.      Approach gives benchmarks on what is needed to look for if wanted to be leaders.

6.      Offer information to supervisors and managers about their strengths and weaknesses and ways to improve overall leadership effectiveness.

Criticisms of Trait Approach 

1.      Foremost is the failure of the trait approach to delimit a definitive list of leadership traits

2.      Trait approach has failed to take situations into account.

3.      Approach has resulted in highly subjective determinations of the most important leadership traits.

4.      Has emphasized the identification of traits, but has not addressed how leadership traits affect group members and their work.

5.      Not a useful approach for training and development for leadership.

Skills Approach

In skill approach it takes a leader-centered perspective on leadership. In this approach it basically analyze on the skills and abilities that can be learned and developed and also suggest the knowledge and abilities are needed for effective leadership. According to the skills approach, it is identified that though many people have the potential for leadership, if people have a good learning environment with the experiences, that people can be effective leaders. 

·         Three-Skill Approach

According to Katz (1995), he has developed a skill approched leadership theory which address the leadership as a set of developable skills such as, technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills. Basically technical skills are the ability of deal with things, human skills are based on dealing with people and conceptual skills is the ability of working with ideas. This modle is named as the Three-Skill Approach. Basicaly to be an effective leader, he or she must have thoes three skills in according to the situation as given in the below figure.

Figure 5- Management Skills Necessary at Various Levels of an Organization (Katz, 1995)

·         Skills Model

Mumford and colleagues in 1990 has structured skills model which is characterized as a “capability model”, as it evaluate the relationship in between a leader’s knowledge and skills and the leader’s performance. Skills approach provides a structure for understanding the nature of effective leadership.

Figure 6- Three Components of the Skills Model (Mumford, 2000)

Strengths of Skill model

·         By comparing to the other leadership models developed earlier, Skill model is an approach which creates a structure of process of leadership around skills rather than just highlighting the importance and the value of skills across different management levels.

·         Skills approach is intuitively appealing which enable each and every human even if he or she is without natural ability in these leadership skills, with the learnings they can develop themselves in the area of leadership.

·         Skills approach provide a view of leadership that combine with variety of components such as, including problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, knowledge, individual attributes, career experiences, and environmental influences.

·         Skills approach provides a structure that is very consistent with the curricula of most leadership education programs.

Criticisms of Skill model

·         Breadth of the skills approach is extend beyond the boundaries of leadership and by including many components, the skills model becomes general and less precise in explaining leadership performance.

·         Skills model is weak in predictive value as it does not explain how variations in social judgment skills and problem-solving skills affect performance.

·         There are many trait driven individual attributes components included in skills model and it shifts the skill model away from being strictly a skills approach to leadership.

·         As the skill model was developed by using a large sample of military personnel and observing their performance in the armed services, it is not applicable for general business world.

Contrast of Katz’s leadership model and Mumford leadership model

·         Both the theories are concentrating on the skills based for leadership.

·         In Mumford leadership model social judgment skills are similar to Katz’s (1955) early work on the role of human skills in management in terms of conceptually.

Comparison of Katz’s leadership model and Mumford leadership model

·         By comparing to the Katz’s leadership model, Mumford leadership model have delineated social judgment skills into perspective taking, social perceptiveness, behavioral flexibility, and social performance.

·         In Katz’s leadership model it is highlighted that conceptual skills are essential for upper-level administrators. But in Mumford leadership model it is stated that leaders develop competencies over time.

·         The skill-based model of Mumford analyzes five components of leadership in the model. Such as, competencies, individual attributes, leadership outcomes, career experiences, and environmental influences. But in Katz’s leadership model, it is identifying three main personal skills such as, technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills.

Skill approach suggests that effective leadership is an acquisition of competency-based skills that anyone can learn. But we cannot hold the expectation that all individuals will equally acquire the skill. Sometimes there might be people who are born with the leadership skills and just have to polish up them with the leanings and experiences. Those people might be highlighted as they have the leadership skills even in their blood. Apart from that different people will acquire the leadership up to various level in according to their knowledge and able to understand things.